Eight Banners

Lore & Background

Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300 households. Five companies made up a battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400. In 1615, the number of banners was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner. The bordered variant of each flag was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead. The banner armies expanded rapidly after a string of military victories under Nurhaci and his successors. Beginning in the late 1620s, the Jurchens incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system. In 1635, Hong Taiji, son of Nurhaci, renamed his people from Jurchen to Manchu. That same year the Mongols were separated into the Mongol Eight Banners. Han troops were initially incorporated into the existing Manchu Banners. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into the so-called Old Han Army under the Han commander Tong Yangxing. These artillery units were used decisively to defeat Ming general Zu Dashou's forces at the siege of Dalinghe that same year. Between 1637 and 1642, the Old Han Army, mostly made up of Liaodong natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into the Han Eight Banners. The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as the Manchu Eight Banners. Although still called the "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Han). Among the Banners, gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by the Han Banners. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in the Eight Banners system. That year, Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector Wu Sangui to defeat Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and secure Beijing for the Qing.

Reader's Guide

The Eight Banners provided very important material, legal, and social privileges during the Qing Dynasty in China. Bannermen received state stipends, land allocations, grain rations, and housing in selected garrison quarters that were mostly in Beijing. Rather than relying on the damages of war after the early conquest period, the Qing state developed a salaried system that allowed bannermen and their households to have a regular income. Banner status also created an important legal separation and bannermen were governed by banner courts and internal disciplinary systems that were in place. These were separate from the regular civilian administration at that time. If someone was affiliated with the banners then they were provided access to employment, officeholding, and imperial favor especially for those in the Upper Three Banners under direct imperial control. Over time people with banner membership became a key marker of Manchu identity and preserved cultural practices while integrating different ethnic groups into the Qing imperial system. Membership in the banners became hereditary, and bannermen were granted land and income. After the Ten Great Campaigns of the mid-18th century the quality of the banner armies declined. Their failure to suppress the Taiping Rebellion of the mid-19th century ruined their reputation. By the late 19th century the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as the Xiang Army. Over time, the Eight Banners became synonymous with Manchu identity even as their military strength vanished. By the nineteenth century the cost of maintaining stipends for the hereditary banner population strained the imperial treasury. With that the banner status still held onto the symbolic prestige that is held earlier but many bannermen experienced economic decline.

Did You Know?

• The Eight Banners were originally four banners—Yellow, White, Red, and Blue—before being doubled to eight in 1615 through the creation of bordered variants.
• In 1648, ethnic Manchus made up only 16% of the Eight Banners, while Han bannermen dominated with 75% and Mongol bannermen made up the rest.
• Gunpowder weapons such as muskets and artillery were specifically wielded by the Han Banners within the Eight Banner system.
• The banner armies participated in two invasions of Joseon Korea, in 1627 and 1636, forcing Joseon to become a Qing tributary.
• By the late 19th century, the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as the Xiang Army, as the banner armies' military strength had vanished.

From Hunting Parties to a Military State

Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300 households. Five companies made up a battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400. In 1615, the number of banners was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner. The bordered variant of each flag was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead.

Conquest and the Forging of a Multi-Ethnic Army

Under Hong Taiji, the banner armies participated in two invasions of Joseon in the Korean Peninsula first in 1627 and again in 1636. As a consequence, Joseon was forced to end its relationship with the Ming and become a Qing tributary instead. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into the so-called Old Han Army under the Han commander Tong Yangxing. These artillery units were used decisively to defeat Ming general Zu Dashou's forces at the siege of Dalinghe that same year. Between 1637 and 1642, the Old Han Army, mostly made up of Liaodong natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into the Han Eight Banners. The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as the Manchu Eight Banners. Although still called the "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Han). Among the Banners gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by the Han Banners. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in the Eight Banners system. That year, Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector Wu Sangui to defeat Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and secure Beijing for the Qing. The young Shunzhi Emperor was then enthroned in the Forbidden City. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating with 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest.

A Salaried Estate: Privileges and Legal Distinction

The Eight Banners provided very important material, legal, and social privileges during the Qing Dynasty in China. Bannermen received state stipends, land allocations, grain rations, and housing in selected garrison quarters that were mostly in Beijing. Rather than relying on the damages of war after the early conquest period, the Qing state developed a salaried system that allowed bannermen and their households to have a regular income. Banner status also created an important legal separation and bannermen were governed by banner courts and internal disciplinary systems that were in place. These were separate from the regular civilian administration at that time which also reinforced their identity as a distinct military administrative estate within the Qing Dynasty. If someone was affiliated with the banners then they were provided access to employment, officeholding, and imperial favor especially for those in the Upper Three Banners under direct imperial control. Over time people with banner membership became a key marker of Manchu identity and preserved cultural practices while integrating different ethnic groups into the Qing imperial system.

From Elite Armies to Symbolic Remnant

After the Ten Great Campaigns of the mid-18th century the quality of the banner armies declined. Their failure to suppress the Taiping Rebellion of the mid-19th century ruined their reputation. By the late 19th century the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as the Xiang Army. Over time, the Eight Banners became synonymous with Manchu identity even as their military strength vanished. By the nineteenth century the cost of maintaining stipends for the hereditary banner population strained the imperial treasury. With that the banner status still held onto the symbolic prestige that is held earlier but many bannermen experienced economic decline.